Introduction

Lingala is a Bantu language spoken in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the Republic of the Congo (Congo-Brazzaville), as well as in the Congolese diaspora throughout the Global North, mainly in Western Europe, where first-generation Congolese also pass on the language to the 2nd and 3rd generation. Due to its role as lingua franca in these regions, Lingala fulfils an important communicative and cultural function. Well known in the scholarly literature is the history of contact with other languages and influences of colonial and modern developments (i.a., Nassenstein 2023, 2015, Sene Mongaba 2013, Bokamba 2009, Meeuwis 2021, 2023, 2024,). Less well mapped out is the considerable variation that Lingala shows today in all these regions, according to both regional and social parameters.

This research project aims to investigate the diversity of the Lingala language in different geographical and social contexts, both in Central Africa and in the diaspora in Europe. We will focus on linguistic diversity, sociolinguistic aspects, and the influence of contact with other languages on the evolution of Lingala.

Research questions

1. Which linguistic varieties of Lingala can be distinguished in the different regions of Central Africa?

   - What dialectical differences are present between Lingala in urban versus rural areas?

   - How have other local languages, such as Kikongo, Swahili, and Tshiluba, influenced Lingala?

   - What is the role of French, as a colonial and national language, in the current forms of Lingala?

2. Is the use and form of Lingala changing in the diaspora in Europe?

   - How does contact with European languages (e.g. French, Dutch, English) affect the language structure and lexicon of Lingala?

   - How do the second generation of Congolese in Europe retain or lose their knowledge of Lingala?

   - What role does Lingala play in the cultural identity of diaspora communities?

3. What are the social and regional factors that contribute to the diversity of Lingala?

   - How do the forms of Lingala differ according to social status, age, and gender?

   - In what contexts is Lingala used (e.g. family, religion, music, media)?

   - What prestige or stigma factors are associated with different forms of Lingala, both in Central Africa and in Europe?

Methodology

This research will use a multidisciplinary approach, combining linguistic analysis, ethnographic fieldwork, and sociolinguistic research. The method includes the following components:

1. Corpus research and linguistic analysis: A corpus of spoken and written Lingala will be compiled, consisting of recordings of conversations, interviews, media productions and music. This corpus will be analyzed to understand the grammatical and lexical variation within different geographic regions and social groups.

2. Fieldwork in Central Africa and Europe: Field studies will be carried out in Kinshasa, Brazzaville, and some rural areas in both Congos. In Europe, the fieldwork will focus on the diaspora communities in cities such as Brussels, Paris, London and Berlin. In these cities, interviews will be conducted with speakers of different generations, with a special focus on how the language is transmitted and adapted within the context of migration.

3. Sociolinguistic Interviews and Surveys: Interviews and surveys will be conducted with different language users to gain insight into their views on the use of Lingala, both in formal and informal settings. Attention will be paid to the influence of education, religion and music, especially given the prominent role of Lingala in Congolese popular music.

Newly delivered knowledge

This research will provide a detailed picture of the varieties of Lingala and how they develop in different sociolinguistic contexts. We expect the results to provide insight into:

- The degree of regional and social variation within Central Africa and how this variation is related to factors such as urban versus rural areas, contacts with other Bantu languages, and the influence of French.

- The role of migration in the evolution of the Lingala language in Europe, with specific attention to the dynamics of language preservation and language loss within diaspora communities.

- The sociolinguistic status of different forms of Lingala, with certain forms enjoying more prestige depending on the context (e.g., "formal" vs. "informal" Lingala, or urban language vs. rural variants).

- The extent to which Lingala is considered cultural heritage in diaspora communities and passed on to future generations.

On a more general level, this research will also contribute to existing knowledge on multilingualism, language contact and language variation, and it can provide a better understanding of the dynamics of minority languages in diaspora situations. In addition, the project can lay the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the role of languages such as Lingala in the construction of social identity, both within Africa and beyond. By focusing on both linguistic and social aspects, this research can also contribute to discussions on language policy and cultural integration, both in the context of Central Africa and in Europe.

Bokamba, Eyamba G. 2009. The spread of Lingala as a lingua franca in the Congo basin. In McLaughlin, F. (ed.), The languages of urban Africa. pp. 50-70. London: Continuum.

Meeuwis, Michael. 2021. Grammaire descriptive du lingála: Edition revue et élargie. Munich: Lincom.

Meeuwis, Michael. 2023. The dissociation of Lingala from Bangala in historical perspective: A prolegomenon to the study of present-day north-eastern Bangala. In Nassenstein, N. and Kunzmann, J. (Eds.), Lingala: Current Topics / Sujets d'Actualité. pp. 37-57. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

Meeuwis, Michael. 2024. Redeeming a killer language: Protestant missionaries' engagements with Bangala and Lingala in the Belgian Congo, 1900–1935. Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines,58.

Nassenstein, Nico. 2015. The emergence of Langila in Kinshasa (DR Congo). In Nassenstein, N. and Hollington, A. (Eds.), Youth language practices in Africa and beyond. pp. 81-98. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.

Nassenstein, Nico. 2023. Lingala in the northeast: Contact-induced change and regional variation in Ituri Province. In Nassenstein, N. and Kunzmann, J. (Eds.), Lingala: Current Topics / Sujets d'actualité. pp. 115-30. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

Sene Mongaba, Bienvenu. 2013. Kotangisa na minoko ya Afrika - Enseigner dans les langues africaines. Wavre: Mabiki.