The project explores the new coffee frontier in the region around Lake Kivu in Central Africa in the period 1920-1960. After the 1920's, Kivu developed in a successful coffee growing region. The dominant oriducion models east (smallholders) and west (plantations) of Lake Kivu diverged considerably. This project will focus on a/ the interaction between large scale (plantations) and small scale (smallholders) production systels, b. the mobilisation and employment of 'free' and 'unfree' labour and c/ the strategies of rural populations to keep control over their resources.