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Osteochondrosis (OC) is a multifactorial orthopaedic condition that is an important
cause of lameness in dogs.The exact pathophysiology remains unclear, but several
factors indicate that biomechanical loading of the joint plays an important role.
The general aim of this PhD was to gain more insight in the role of biomechanical
loading in the development of OC lesions in dogs, more specifically at the level of the
tarsocrural joint.
In Chapter 1, a general introduction about bone and bone adaptation is given.
Additionally, it is explained why subchondral bone density distribution is an
interesting parameter to study, and how this can be visualised using CTOAM.
In Chapter 2, a review of literature on canine osteochondrosis in general and
tarsocrural osteochondrosis in specific was provided. In addition to a general
background of tarsocrural OC, different diagnostic techniques, including clinical
examination, radiography, CT, and arthroscopy are discussed. The diagnosis of
tarsocrural OC is complicated due to superposition of bony structures on
radiography, and CT is often needed to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Different
treatment options are available, with the arthroscopic removal of the fragment
being the surgical method of choice in most cases. The prognosis differs among
various cited studies,however,with the use of minimally-invasive technique such as
arthroscopy, improvement or full recovery is seen in the majority of cases.
Tarsocrural osteochondrosis can occur on the medial (MTRT-OC) or lateral (LTRT-OC)
trochlear ridge.In Chapter 3, clinical and morphological parameters were compared
between MTRT-OC and LTRT-OC. Clinical parameters included breed, age, gender,
weight,and duration of clinical symptoms and morphological data included size,
location, and number of fragments as determined by CT. The LTRT-OC lesions were
found to be bigger and had a larger variation in size compared to MTRT-OC lesions.
Additionally, dogs with LTRT-OC lesions were younger and tended to have a shorter
duration of clinical signs before presentation compared to dogs with MTRT-OC.
These findings might support existing hypotheses about differences in aetiology
between MTRT-OC and LTRT-OC lesions, with the first one being true OC lesions, in
which micro-damage plays in important role, and the latter being traumatic,
transchondral fractures, similar to those seen in humans.
To explore the role of biomechanical loading in the development of OC lesions, a
combination of non-invasive in vivo evaluation of subchondral bone density
distribution is combined with advanced biomechanical modeling techniques, more
specifically image-based musculoskeletal modeling, dynamic motion analysis and
finite element analysis. The scientific aims (Chapter 4), were formulated around the
central hypothesis of a clear correlation between a high, experimentally determined
subchondral bone density, high model based strains, and the location of OC lesions
in the tarsocrural joint.
The subchondral bone density is highly correlated with the joint loading distribution
and can be used to study joint biomechanics non-invasively. First, subchondral bone
density distribution of the talus in healthy Labrador Retrievers was evaluated
(Chapter 5) as a parameter reflecting the long-term joint loading in the tarsocrural
joint. This resulted in a non-homogenous density distribution with two density
maxima, one on the proximal aspect of the medial trochlear ridge, and one more
distally on the lateral trochlear ridge. No differences were found between left and
right limbs, and the subchondral bone density distribution was very similar between
different dogs of the same breed. The lateral trochlear ridge had a higher apparent
density compared to the medial trochlear ridge, as the lateral trochlear ridge is more
pronounced and likely to endure increased loads during gait.
The location of the density maximum on the medial trochlear ridge is the same
location where MTRT-OC lesions are found, supporting previous studies suggesting
that repetitive micro-damage is an important factor in the development of OC.
Additionally, the use of CTOAM in the field of veterinary biomechanics has significant
advantages compared to more traditional and invasive techniques used to evaluate
joint loading.
To investigate the material properties of the subchondral bone plate, the
subchondral bone density was correlated with the strength of the subchondral bone
plate determined by indentation testing (Chapter 6). High correlations were found
between the density values and the measured mechanical strength with a mean r
2 of 0.89. This shows that CTOAM in dogs can be used to evaluate the mechanical
strength of the subchondral bone plate, and provides the opportunity to do so in
longitudinal studies.
During growth, the supporting skeletal structures mature and continually adapt to
the loading conditions. The evaluation of age-dependent changes in subchondral
bone density during skeletal maturation (Chapter 7), shows a general increase in
density with in creasing age. This is expected and most likely an adaptive response to
increased bodyweight and physical activity. Interestingly, the subchondral bone
density distribution was very similar between 8 months of age and 20 months of age,
indicating that the joint loading distribution also remains very similar. So although
the overall density increased, the density distribution was preserved over time. This
provides important information for the evaluation of subchondral bone density in
the tarsocrural joint of Labrador Retrievers.
Because the subchondral bone density distribution is likely to change in case of joint
pathology, and joint pathology itself is likely to change joint loading, several dogs
with tarsocrural OC were evaluated using CTOAM at the time of diagnosis and in
some cases during long-term follow-up (Chapter 8). The subchondral lesions show a
low density and are surrounded by a high-density ring. Density changes are not
limited to the affected joint, as the contralateral joint shows an increase in
subchondral bone density. This is most likely a reflection of weight-shift and changes
in loadbearing on the hind limbs in dogs with MTRT-OC.
The subchondral bone density differences found between different dog breeds
(Canis familiaris), and between other Canidae (Canis lupus and Canis aureus),
indicate differences in joint loading of the hock joint (Chapter 9). For the domestic
dogs, these differences can be attributed to conformational differences, which are
especially obvious when comparing Labrador Retrievers and German Shepherds.
Differences between domestic dogs and other Canidae were also seen, however,
how these differences relate to diffences in pelvic limb loading remains subject to
further research.
Another way to evaluate joint loading is the use of musculoskeletal modeling. Using
a breed-specific musculoskeletal model of the pelvis and hind limbs of a Labrador
Retriever, the joint kinematics, kinetics, muscle forces, and joint contact forces were
evaluated (Chapter 10). Geometry was derived from CT images, and model input
came from marker data combined with force-plate data, providing an integrated
dataset. Although the current model has several assumptions and limitations, it can
be used to explore canine joint loading and can be further refined as more
morphological data becomes available.
The combination of musculoskeletal modeling and finite element modeling (Chapter 11)
provides the opportunity to investigate the strains and stresses at the level of
the subchondral bone and articular cartilage. It enables us to evaluate the tissue
response to the local mechanical environment and to link the results to joint
pathology. Although thorough sensitivity analysis and validation studies are
necessary before the model can be applied in a clinical setting,it holds promising
results and definitely deserves a place in the field of canine orthopaedic research.
The general discussion is given in Chapter 12. The results of the different chapters are
discussed in light of the research question of this PhD.